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1、v1.0可编辑可修改10自考现代语言学复习讲义一、常考题型1. 填空2. 单项选择3. 判断正误4. 解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5. 回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 In troducti on（绪论）is lin guisticsDefi niti on（语言学的定义）Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as thescien tific study of Ian guageLinguistics studies not any particular Ianguage, ., English,
2、Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in Ian guage in gen eral.The Scope of lin guistics（语言学的研究范畴）一4The study of Ianguage as a whole is often called general linguistics（普通语言学）.Thisdeals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to t
3、hose branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Main bran ches of lin guistics语言学的主要分支：1）phon etics （语音学）2）pho no logy（音系学）3）morphology（形态学）4）sy ntax（句法学）5）sema ntics（语义学）6）pragmatics（语用学）The study of all these aspects of Ian guage forms the core of lin guistics.Findin
4、gs in linguisticstudies can often be applie3d to the solutionof such practicalproblems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applicati ons is gen erally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics宏观语言学：1） Psycholingusitcs （心理语言学）;2） Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）；3） Anthropologicallinguist
5、ics（人类语言学）；4） Computational linguistics（计算语言学）Some importa nt disti nctions in lin guistics71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive（规定性和描述性）Examples:Don' t say X.People don ' t say X.Modern linguistics, .,linguistic study carried out in thiscenturyis mostlydescriptive .1.3.2 Synchron ic vs. diach
6、ro nic（共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronicstudy.1.3.3 Speech and writi ng（口头语和书面语）Speech and writi ngare the two major media of com muni cati on . Moder n lin guisticsregardsthe spoken Ianguage asprimary , not the written.1.3.4 Lan gue and parole（语
7、言和言语）The distinctionbetween Iangue and parole was madeby the Swiss linguist F. de Saussurein the early 20 th cen tury.1.3.5 Compete nee and performa nee（语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure ' s distinctionbetween Iangue and parole is the distinction betweencompetence and performanee , which was propose
8、d by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 ' s.While Saussure ' s distinction and Chomsky ' s are very similar, they differ at leastin that Saussure took a sociological view of Ianguage and his notion of Iangue is a matter of social conven tio ns, and Chomsky looks at la ngua
9、ge from apsychological point of viewand to him compete nce is a property of the mi nd of each in dividual.2. What is Ian guageDefin iti ons of Ian guageLan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com mun icati on.（语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。）Language distinguishes us from animals b
10、ecause it is far more sophisticated than any ani mal com mun icatio n system.Desig n features14Design featuresrefer to the defi ning properties of huma n Ian guage that disti nguishit from any an imal system of com mun icati onA framework was proposed by the American linguistCharles Hockett . He spe
11、cified twelvedesig n features, five of which will be discussed here.1） Arbitrari ness（任意性）Lan guage is arbitrary. This mea ns that there is no logicalrelati on shipbetwee nmeanings and sounds. While Ianguage is arbitrary by nature,it is not entirelyThe arbitrary nature of Ianguage is a sign of sophi
12、stication and it makes it possible for Ian guage to have an un limited source of expressi ons.2）Productivity （ 创造性）Productivity is unique to huma n Ian guage.3）Duality （ 双重性）Lan guage is a system, which con sists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a st
13、ructure of soun ds, which is meanin gless.4）Displaceme nt （移位性）Lan guage can be used to refer to things which are prese nt or not prese nt, real or imagi ned matters in the past, prese nt, or future or in far-away places. In con trast, no ani mal com mun icatio n possess this feature.5）Cultural tran
14、smission （文化传递性）While huma n capacity of Ian guage has a gen etic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire Ianguage,the details of any Ianguage system are nottran smitted, but in stead have to be taught and lear ned.Chapter 2 Pho no logy （ 音系学）1. The phonic medium of Ian guage（语言的声音媒介）
15、一16arbitrarygen eticallyas vehiclesSpeech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural Ianguages for communication. Of the two media of Ianguage, speech is more basic than writing. For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing; their dada for in vest
16、igatio n and an alysis are mostly draw n from authe ntic, everyday speech.（语音学）What is pho netics17Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of Ianguage; it is concernedwith all the sounds that occur in the world' s Ianguages.articulatory phonetics （发音语音学 ）;auditory phonetics （听觉语音学
17、 ）;acousticphonetics （声学语音学）Of the three bran ches of phon etics, the Ion gest established, and un til recen tly themost highly developed, is articulatory phonetics.Orga ns of speech （发音器官）22The articulatory apparatus of a huma n being are contained in three importa nt areasor cavities: the pharynge
18、al cavity （卩因月空）the throat, the oral cavity （ 口腔空）the mouth,and the nasal cavity （鼻腔）一the nose.（人类的发声器官都被包括在三个重要的地方或腔道里；咽腔一即咽喉；口腔一即嘴；和鼻腔一即鼻子。 ）Orthographic represe ntati on of speech sounds broad and n arrow tran scripti ons （语音的正字标音法一宽式标音法和严式标音法）Two ways to transcribe speech sounds are now availabl
19、e. Oneis the transcription withletter-symbols only and the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics（ 附加符号）.The former is called broad tran scripti on . This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. The latter is called narrow trans
20、cription . This is really the transcriptionrequired and used by thephoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represe nt as much of the fine details as it is n ecessary for their purpose.Chapter 3 Morphology （ 形态学）（形态学的定义）Morphology is a branch
21、of grammar which studies the internal structure of words andthe rules by which words are formed.Morphology is divided into two sub-branches:inflectional morphology （屈折形态学）andlexical or derivationalmorphology （词汇或派生词汇学）.The former studies the inflectionsand the latter the study ofword-formatio n（词素）M
22、orpheme: the smallest meaningful un it of Ian guage（词素：语言最小的意义单位）Just as a phon eme is the basic un it in the study of pho no logy, so is a morpheme the basic un it in the study of morphology.The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kin ds:lexical meaning and grammaticalmeaning （词汇意义和语法意义 ）.The mo
23、rphemes such as “ man" ,“-ly ” ,“ teach ” ,“ -er ”dark , -en in manly , teacher , darke ncon vey a lexical meaning, whilethe morphemes such as -es , -ed , -ing in teaches , played , raining convey a grammatical meaning.链接：Morpheme is the smallest un it of Ian guage in terms of relati on ship be
24、twee n expressi on and content, a un it that cannot be divided into further smaller un its without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical,.boys-boy+-s in dicates pluralitychecking-check+-i ngdisappo in tme nt-dis-+appo in t+-me ntTypes of morphemesMorphe
25、mes are classified intofree morphemes and bound morphemesfree morpheme （ 自 由词素）rootmorpheme广（词根）Ybound morpheme（粘着词素）Jin fleCtio nal affix（prefix屈折词缀）（前缀）affix词缀）derivational affixsuffix（后缀）Free morphemes are morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves o
26、r in comb in atio n with other morphemes.Take help, quick, able, warm for example, they can be used freely all by themselves,at the same time, they can also be used in comb in ati on with other morphemes as inhelper,quicke n, disable, warm-hearted.Bound morphemes are morphemes are the morphemes whic
27、h cannot be used in depe nden tlybut have to be comb ined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. Bound morphemes in clude two types:roots and affixes .A root is often seenas part of a word; it can never standby itself although it bearsclear, definite meaning; it must be combined
28、 with another root or an affixto form a word.For example, the root “ geo- ” bears the meaning of “ the earth ” ; when it combines with another root “-ology ” , meaning “ a branch oflearning ” , we get the word “ geology ” ,which means “ the study of the earth ' s structure. ”Affixes are of two t
29、ypes:inflectional and derivationalIn fleet ional affixes or in fleet ionalmorphemes man ifest various grammatical relati onsor grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The inflectionalaffixesin En glish in clude:-（e）s, in dicat ing plurality of nouns-（e）s, indicating third per
30、son singular, present tense-（e）d, in dicati ng past tense for all three pers ons-ing, in dicat ing progressive aspect-er, i ndicat ing comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs-est, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs- s, indicating the possessive case of nounsDerivati onal af
31、fixes are added to an existi ng form to create a word. This is a verycommonway to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formationis called derivationa derivative （派生词）.The existingstem （词干）.A stem can be a（派生法）and the new word formed by derivation is called form to which a derivational aff
32、ix can be added is called a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.tolerateroot “ toler- ” +affix “ -ate ”quickfree morpheme "quick ” + affixa *»-lycareless nessfree morpheme “ care ”+ affixa *»-less+ derivative"careless ” + affixa”-n essAccord ing to the its posit
33、i on in the new word, affixes are divided into two kin ds: prefixes（ 前缀）and suffixes （ 后缀）.Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not cha nge the part of speech of the original word. Exceptions are the prefixes “be-” and “en（m）- ” Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words int
34、o verbs, .little- belittle, large-e nl arge, rich-e nrich,body-embodySuffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the original wordand in many cases change its part of speech.2.2.3 Morphological rulesIn using the morphological rules, we must guard against overgeneralization.Dif
35、ferentwords may require differe nt affixes to create the same cha nge.A knowledge of the derivational affixes and the morphological rules is very helpfulin our study of En glish especially for enlarging our vocabulary, but such a kno wledge is not to be overused.（复合法）Like derivation,compounding is a
36、nother popular and important way of forming new wordsin En glish. In terms of morphemic an alysis, derivati on can be viewed as the additi on of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimesmore tha n two words to create new words.Types of compo und wordsThe
37、re are various ways to classify the compo und words. One of them is to look at the parts of speech of the comp onent words. Words of various parts of speech can be comb ined to form compo un ds.Features of compo undsDespite the various formati ons, all compo unds share the follow ing feature.1. Orth
38、ographically（从正字法的角度看）A compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.2. Syntactically（从句法的角度看）The part of speech of the compo und is gen erally determ ined by the part of speech of the sec ond eleme nt.3. Sema ntically（从语义的角度看）The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum of the meanings of its comp onen ts.4. Phon etically（从发音的角度看）The stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives sec on dary stress.