《均衡价格与市场.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《均衡价格与市场.docx（36页珍藏版）》请在三一文库上搜索。
1、Chapter Three Equilibrium Price and Market第3章 均衡价格与市场市场是由供求双方共同构成的。利用价格决定理论研究市场供求关系，由此来分析解决资源合理配置问题，是微观经济学研究的中心内容。在研究了需求、供给之后，就必须要讨论和研究价格与市场问题。本章内容要点是市场与市场经济的特点，均衡价格的含义及其形成过程，市场的类型，市场的建设，期货市场的特点与功能。3.1 Characteristics and Construction Methods of Market Economy市场经济的特点与建设措施一、市场及其构成要素（一）什么是市场Market The
2、 interaction between buyers and sellers.所谓市场，从狭义上讲，是指商品交换的场所；从广义上讲，市场是商品交换关系的总和。从前一层含义来说，市场可以是集贸市场或专业商品市场，具体地讲可以是一个集市、一个商店或一个贸易货栈等；从后一层含义来讲，市场是所有的商品生产者和交换者的商品交换关系的集合。（二）市场的构成要素一般情况下，市场的构成要素主要有三个：一是有某种需要的人；二是具有能够满足这种需要的购买能力；三是购买欲望。如果把市场的要素构成用公式表示就是：市场人口购买力购买欲望。市场的这三个因素是相互制约的，缺一不可，只有三者结合起来，才能形成现实的市场，某
3、一市场的规模和容量是由这三者共同决定的。例如，一个地区人口比较多，购买欲望很大，但收入水平很低，购买力很低，构不成容量很大的市场。又比如，居民收入水平很高，购买力虽然很强，但人口数量很少，也不能构成很大容量的市场。一个地区人口既多，购买力又高，才能成为一个有潜力的大市场。但是，如果产品不适合需要，不能引起人们的购买欲望，对销售者来说，仍然不能形成现实的市场。市场是三个构成要素的有机统一体。二、市场经济的特点与类型（一）市场经济的特点Market economy An economy where all economic decisions are taken by individual hou
4、seholds and firms, and which relies on the price mechanism to allocate the resources.市场经济是一种用价格机制决定资源配置的经济体制。在这种经济体制中，资源配置的决策由单个经济单位作出。机制一词原意是指机器构造及其制动原理和运行规则。在这里，被用来说明社会本身的运行、调节的方式和规律。价格机制又称为市场机制，是价格调节社会经济生活的方式和规律。价格机制包括价格调节经济的条件，以及价格调节经济的方式。市场经济有以下几个方面的特点：1、企业是独立的经济单位。企业是独立运用经营要素，实行独立经营、独立核算、自负盈亏，
5、以取得盈利为目的，具有法人地位的社会经济组织。在市场经济中，存在生产者自由，经营决策由企业独立自主地作出。2、生产要素可以自由流动。在市场经济中，商品的价格由买卖双方供求关系决定，生产者对生产什么，生产多少，为谁生产的决策可以自主地选择。因此，资源的合理配置问题是由生产者独立地做出，资源在各个行业间可以自由流动。同样，消费者的购买行为，完全可以根据价格及个人的消费偏好进行确定，具有选择的自主权。3、通过价格调节经济。价格调节就是价格是经济运行的调节者，由市场竞争决定的价格是资源配置的主要手段。通过价格对经济进行调节是市场经济和计划经济的主要区别。价格调节经济必须具备三个条件：其一，经济单位是独
6、立的经济实体；其二，存在市场；其三，市场竞争的完全性与公平性。在完全竞争市场条件下，不存在买方和卖方垄断的问题。（二）市场的类型 对于市场的类型可以按以下几种标准进行划分： 1、根据商品交换内容，可分为：农产品市场、家用电器市场、建筑材料市场、日用百货市场、化工原料市场和车辆交易市场等。 2、根据商品交换场所，可分为：国内市场和外贸市场。国内市场又分为农村集市、城镇产品市场、沿海产品市场、边境产品市场和经济特区产品市场等。 3、根据产品的经济用途，可分为：消费资料市场和生产资料市场。消费资料市场上交易的商品主要是城乡居民生活必需品，如粮食、蔬菜、水果、衣服等。生产资料市场上交易的商品主要是种子
7、、农药、化肥、饲料、农机、机械零配件等各业生产的生产资料。 4、根据产品交易方式，可分为：现货交易市场和期货交易市场。现货市场的交易特点是买卖双方交易的是现实交割的商品；期货市场买卖双方交易的是标准化期货交易合同。5、根据市场经营环节，可分为：批发(wholesale)市场和零售(retail)市场。批发是指一切将商品或服务给为了转卖给他人或商业用途而进行购买行为的个人或组织的营销活动，批发市场是进行商品批量交易的市场。从事批发经营的主体主要有：商人批发商(wholesaler)、经纪人(broker)或代理销售商(sale agent)等；零售是指所有向最终消费者直接销售产品或服务的营销活动
8、。零售市场是进行商品零星交易的市场。从事零售业务的商品经营者主要有商店零售商、无门市零售商和零售机构等。三、价格在市场经济中的作用（一）价格调节经济的条件均衡价格是调节经济的“看不见的手”，但是，要让“看不见的手”发挥作用还需要一些条件，换言之，市场经济中价格的调节作用以三个重要的假设为前提条件。1、商品交易者是有理性的经济人。在市场上无论居民户或厂商，每一个人都有能力自觉地追求个人利益的最大化。只有这样，价格才能自发地有效地引导人们的经济行为。2、市场是完全竞争的。这就是说，每一个消费者或生产者都不能通过人为的关系改变由市场决定的价格，市场上的商品价格是由所有供给者和需求者双方共同决定的，每
9、个交易者只是价格的接受者，不是决定者。3、信息是完全畅通的。这就是说，市场上任何一个消费者或生产者都可以免费得到作出决策所需要的信息。任何一方都不能利用信息优势欺骗对方。（二）价格在经济中的调节作用The price mechanism The system in a market economy whereby changes in price in response to changes in demand and supply have the effect of making demand equal to supply. 在这样的前提下，美国经济学家N费里德曼把价格在经济中的作用归纳
10、为三种:一是传递情报；二是提供一种刺激，促使人们采用最节约的办法进行生产；三是决定谁可以得到多少产品。这三种作用实际上解决了资源配置的三个问题：生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。其作用可以具体化为：第一，作为指示器反映市场的供求状况。市场供求关系是受各种因素的影响的，每时每刻都在变化。这种变化必然要反映在价格上，人们通过价格的波动来了解供求的变动。第二，价格的变动可以调节市场需求。消费者为了实现效用最大化，一定要按价格的变动来进行购买与消费。当某种商品的价格下降时，消费者就会多买，当某种商品的价格上升时，消费者就会少买。第三，价格的变动可以调节市场供给。生产者为了实现利润最大化，一定要按价格
11、的变动来进行生产与销售。当某种商品的价格下降时，生产者就会少生产，当某种商品的价格上升时，生产者就会多生产。第四，价格可以使资源配置达到最优化。通过价格调节需求与供给，最终会使需求与供给相等，实现消费者的效用最大化，同时实现生产者的利润最大化，达到消费者与生产者的均衡，实现资源配置的最优化。四、价格调节经济的方式价格调节经济的方式主要有二：其一，价格信号反映市场上的商品供求状态，指导人们作出正确的选择。其二，价格机制对经济进行自发的调节。没有任何外力的作用，价格也可以对经济进行自发的调节。因为价格可以对经济起到自发的调节作用，所以人们把价格对经济的调节作用形象地比喻为是“一只看不见的手”，价格
12、主要是通过市场供求关系的变化来对经济进行调节，协调商品的需求与供给。五、搞好市场建设的基本措施（一）建立和完善市场运行机制 市场运行机制，是指构成市场的各个要素的相互联系、相互制约而发挥功能的关系体系。建立和完善市场运行机制主要要做好的工作有：建立和完善市场体系，理顺产品价格体系，加强市场基础设施建设，加强市场秩序管理，搞好市场管理的法制化建设，加强市场行情预测和预报，进行科学的市场信息网络建设，提供优质的各种市场服务等。（二）鼓励开展正当的市场竞争行为 市场经济的主要特征是买卖双方可以自由竞争，买者和买者之间可以自由竞争，卖者和卖者之间也可以自由竞争。在市场竞争中，主要是卖者之间的竞争，竞争
13、的内容有：1、质量竞争 quality competition。产品质量是市场竞争中取胜的关键性因素，俗语说“不怕不识货，就怕货比货。质量问题是市场竞争的关键。同时，产品的外观形状、色泽、包装、商标和售后服务也是重要的产品竞争内容。 2、价格竞争price competition。在产品质量相近的情况下，价格高低是产品市场竞争能力高低的重要影响因素。商品价格比较低，商品需求量就会较多。 3、服务竞争service competition。在产品质量和价格相同的情况下，服务是否到位直接影响着产品的市场竞争力。优质的售后服务是扩大商品销路的重要手段。 4、时间竞争time competition。
14、时间就是生命，时间就是财富。有了物美价廉的产品，还必须掌握适当的投放市场的时机，谁能以在用户最需要的时间里以最快的速度提供商品和劳务性服务，谁就能在市场竞争中取得优势。 5、信誉竞争reputation competition。信誉是顾客心目中对某些企业和产品的信任感。良好的信誉是在市场竞争中保持稳定优势的重要条件。在这方面，努力提高商品在用户心目中的知名度和美誉度是非常重要的促销手段和措施。（三）搞好市场的合理布局和选址在这方面要和社区经济建设的长远规划相结合，重点是搞好现有集贸市场的改造和升级，在市场地址选择上应以方便居民生活为主要原则，同时充分考虑到生产和经济建设的长远发展需要，另外还要
15、适当尊重当地居民的历史习惯，考虑地区和民族的风俗文化特点，有些有历史特色的经济和文化名市要结合约定俗成的历史传统要适当给予保留，如洛阳的关林市场，南京夫子庙市场等。Exercises:Markets - The Efficiency of the Invisible HandThe NewsImage: Pope John Paul II. His death led to the election of a new Pope - Joseph Ratzinger became Pope Benedict VI. Ratzinger was one of 115 potential candi
16、dates but could you have predicted who it would eventually be? The markets did! Title: Pope Makes Landmark Hundredth Foreign Trip. Copyright: Getty Images, available from Education Image GalleryThe death of Pope John Paul II on April 2nd 2005 prompted the process of a conclave at which a new Pope wo
17、uld be elected. 115 cardinals entered the Sistine Chapel in Rome for secret discussions and a series of ballots that would determine who was to be the next Pope. In theory, any one of the 115 cardinals could have been candidates but only one of their numbers would emerge.On May 5th 2005, the UK will
18、 have a general election. The winner of the election will be one of the three major political parties - Labour, Conservative or Liberal Democrat. In reality, the race will really only be between two of these - the Conservatives and Labour. 4 weeks before the actual election could you have predicted
19、who would win?In these two situations there is an outcome. The outcome in each case is uncertain but subject to some element of certainty that can be identified. In the case of the Pope, either Cardinal Ratzinger would be elected Pope or he would not; Cardinal Scola, the Patriarch of Venice and the
20、subject of thousands of jokes, would also either become Pope or he would not.Labour will win the general election or it will not. The Conservatives will win the general election or it will not and so on. Each of these events has an unambiguous outcome. As such, a contract can be issued on this outco
21、me.There are now a series of markets called Trade Exchange Networks that exist to enable individuals to buy and sell contracts on the outcome of such events. It appears that these markets are highly efficient in predicting the future. Their efficiency is such that the Pentagon, the United States Def
22、ence Department, floated the idea of using such markets to get information on politically sensitive outcomes like the possibilities of the US president being assassinated or the likelihood of a terrorist attack on the Houses of Parliament.Their plans were withdrawn after it was feared that assassins
23、 or terrorists with inside information could use the markets! One of the main principles of these markets is that those who trade in them are not party to inside information which would distort the whole workings of the market.Image: Some of these markets were extremely efficient in predicting the w
24、inner of the US presidential election in 2004; in some cases they were able to predict accurately which party would win which state and even the proportion of votes the parties gained! Title: Bush Celebrates 4th Of July In West Virginia. Copyright: Getty Images, available from Education Image Galler
25、yWhat these markets are doing, therefore, is bringing together thousands, if not more, individuals all seeking to make a profit. They make a profit by buying and selling the contracts at different prices. The prices will rise and fall depending on the perceived outcome of the contract.A contract, th
26、erefore, could be announced that Michael Howard will win the election. If he does, then the contract will pay out 10. If not, it will pay out nothing. In the time up to the outcome, the contracts can be traded by the buyers and sellers in this market. If, as the election approaches, it looks as thou
27、gh Michael Howard will win the election then demand for the contract will rise and the price will also rise. If I bought the contract at the start of the period, I may have paid 4.20, as the election approaches and the price rises I might decide to sell it at 8.90 thus making a profit of 4.50 for ea
28、ch contract I own.The person buying the contract at 8.90 will, if Michael Howard does win the election, get 10 thus making a profit of 1.10. If the market feels the chances of Michael Howard winning are receding then they will try to sell and the price will fall. They will want to sell because holdi
29、ng on to the contract will mean they get nothing at the maturity of the contract period.Buyers will, therefore, either buy thinking the price is going to rise or sell thinking the price is going to fall. For each trade, the Exchange charges a small commission.The traders who are successful are the o
30、nes who correctly predict the outcome. To help them in their decision making they may well be watching polls, signs, news items, etc. very carefully. What happens, therefore, is that the combined wisdom of thousands of individuals is brought together through this trading process. The market can be v
31、ery accurate in predicting outcomes.TheoryA market is any place that brings together buyers and sellers with a view to agreeing a price for exchange. This means that markets could be anything from a street market to a supermarket to e-Bay, a pub, club, the London Metal Exchange, or a drugs transacti
32、on on a street corner. Whether legal or not, each of these examples has the characteristics of a buyer, a seller and a price.The market is often spoken of as being an entity in itself, something tangible that exists somewhere out there in the world. We hear people saying things like, the market need
33、s to cater for those less able to help themselves or the market must take into account the effects on the environment.The market, however, is not a physical identity. It is made up of people. In some cases, the number in the market can be very small, in other instances there are millions of people w
34、ho make up the market.As an individual, you are part of hundreds of markets but to illustrate the point we are going to assume you are walking into HMV or Virgin, or similar retail store, to buy a CD. This example is going to refer to the market for CDs. Within this overall market, however, there ar
35、e thousands of sub-markets - such markets will depend on the type of music - rock, blues, jazz, garage, drum n bass, classical, world, etc. You have no particular CD in mind but want to spend some time browsing the shelves. You have 30 to spend.The Demand SideYou represent the buyer, the demand for
36、CDs. However, you bring to the market a peculiar set of individual and unique characteristics. As a potential buyer of CDs you have a certain demand schedule - a demand function. We express this function in the following manner.D = f (Pn, Pn. Pn-1, Y, T, P, A)This means: the level of demand (D) is d
37、ependent upon (is a function of (f) Price (Pn), the prices of other goods (Pn. Pn-1) - substitutes and complements, Incomes (Y), Tastes (T), the level and structure of the population (P) and the level of advertising (A).As you walk into the store, therefore, you are bringing with you a set of charac
38、teristics based on each of these factors which will determine ultimately what or whether you buy anything.You might be swayed by the price of the range of CDs on offer, for example, some offers might mean you could buy 3 for 20 as opposed to two for 15 each; there might be a sales rack with CDs pric
39、ed at 5.99 but they might not be ones that you would necessarily buy at full price. You have a limited income - most people do - so you want to make sure you get value for money.This is termed utility - the measure of satisfaction gained from a product. Utility is impossible to measure in the same w
40、ay we measure length or volume. It is entirely subjective yet it is vitally important in guiding our spending decisions.Image: Buyers and sellers coming together in a market. What will determine the final decision of the buyer and how does the seller try to anticipate this? Title: Music Industry Hun
41、ts Illegal File Swappers. Copyright: Getty Images, available from Education Image GalleryYou are also going to be affected by the range of other goods available - there might be a CD of a band you like but also a DVD of a live performance. The DVD would be referred to as a substitute - something tha
42、t can be used instead of another good but which effectively does the same job. Your decision on the CD or the DVD might depend on whether you have a DVD player. The DVD player would be referred to as a complement - something that tends to be bought along with another good or service.Your age might a
43、lso affect your spending decisions. You will be wandering around the store with hundreds of other people of all different ages. Age might be an important factor in determining the type of demand for a product; you might not find too many teenagers crushed around the easy listening section of the sto
44、re but neither are you likely to find too many pensioners rooting through the gangster rap CDs. The age structure and the size of the population are important determinants of demand.Finally, the other major determinant of demand is advertising. This will be advertising that is not only in the store
45、itself but also from the TV, radio, magazines and so on. You might go into a store, hear a track playing on the in-store radio and really like it and decide to buy it for that reason. Such facilities are simply a form of advertising for the store.The Supply SideFacing you as you walk into the store
46、are hundreds of CDs, store assistants, artists, producers, recording engineers, marketing people and others screaming out at you to buy their product. They have used all manner of methods to try to get you to select their particular CD amongst the thousands that are on offer. There might be 50,000 C
47、Ds for sale in the store but you might leave having bought only two of them or even none at all!Supply, like demand, is dependent on a number of factors. Supply is completely independent of demand; supply does not depend on demand any more than demand is dependent on supply. There might be some rela
48、tionship between the two but they are not dependent on each other. This is very important to remember and is often a source of confusion in student answers.Supply is represented, like demand, as a function:S = f (Pn, Pn. Pn-1, H, N, E, F1.Fm)This says the level of supply (S) is dependent on (is a function of (f) the price of the good (Pn), the prices of goods in joint or complementary supply (Pn. Pn-1), the level of technology (H), natural factors (N) - the climate, weather, availability of natural resources, etc., the expectations of producers (E) and the cost of fact