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1、 1. SLA(Second Ianguage acquisition) is the process by which a Ianguage other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in aclassroom. 2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisiti onLear ningimplicit, subc on sciousexplicit, con sciousin formal situati onsformal situati onsuses
2、grammatical fee luses grammatical rulesdepe nds on attitudedepe nds on aptitudestable order of acquisiti onsimple to complex order oflear ningAcquisiti on refers to the lear ning of a Ian guage uncon sciously un der natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rathe
3、r tha n forms or grammars.Learningrefers to the learningof a Ianguageconsciouslyundereducati onal sett ings where lear ners mai nly pay atte nti on to forms or grammars.3. Factors affecti ng SLASocial factors (external factors)Lear ner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Socia
4、l contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widelyaccepted amongeducators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal fac
5、tors) Motivation ， Age ，Learning strategy 4. Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of a particular response with a par
6、ticular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.When applied to SLA,the process of second language acquisition isregarded as a process of habit formation.5. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences betwe
7、en the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, accordin
8、g to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning.The meansused to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.6. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, struct
9、ures and sentence patterns) 7. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order todetermine boththe differences and si
10、milaritiesbetween them. It could also be donewithin one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.8. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errorsfor the ultimate
11、purpose of isolating whatneeds to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to pred
12、ict all errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.9. difference vs difficulty“Difference ” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is apsychologicalconcept. Therefore, the level
13、of learningdifficultycannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.10. Definition of Error analysis (EA)the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).It involves collecting
14、samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.11. Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one s L1 , or the negative transfer of o
15、nes mother tongue.Intralingual error : deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization. con fusi on of L2 rules12. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner diffe
16、rences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.13. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy, Production strategy 表 达 策 略 Communication strategy:Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task o
17、f communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.14. Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing,
18、 vocabulary, or translation strategies.15. Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.16. Cognitive strategiesCognitive str
19、ategies refer to the steps or operations used in learningor problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representati
20、on, Key word, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, Inferencing17. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamics; attitudes to the teacher and course materials;learning techniquesGeneral factors:age; aptitude; cognitive style; motivation; personality18. MotivationIntegrative motiva
21、tion融合型动机 is present in learners who identifywith the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation工具型动机 refers to those cases where th
22、elearners are interestedin learning the language for the possiblebenefits, that is, the learner s goal is functional.Resultative motivation:因果性动机 Learners motivation is stronglyaffected by their achievement.Motivation as a multi-componential construct:Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + a
23、ttitudesTask motivation: the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks. 19. Defin iti on in terla nguageInterlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language. (Larry Selinker)It is independent of bo
24、th the learners first language and the targetlanguage.It suggests that learners language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.20. Definition of fossilizationFossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stop to learning when thei
25、r internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language. That is to say, the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.21. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization:the phenomenon is alterable under certainconditions.Permanent fossilizationstable stage is not real
26、 fossilizatio n, so there is no real perma nent fossilizati on.22. Causes of fossilizati onIntern al:Motivati on;Communi cative n eeds;deviceExternal: Communi cative pressureLack of lear ning opport un itiesFeedback:positive cog nitive feedbacks cause fossilizati on ;(e.g.“Oh,I see ”)n egative feedb
27、acks help to preve nt fossilizati on.(e.g.“ I don t understand you ” ) 23. Defin iti on of UGCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyanposition, defines grammar as the properties in here nt in the huma n mi nd.grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to rather tha n a set of particular r
28、ules.24. Marked nessMarked ness refers to the idea that some lin guistic structures arespecial orless natural or less basic than othersAcquisiti onuni versalUni versalall IanguageLin guists work ing in the Chomskya n school suggest that lin guisticrules can either be part of the core grammar (i.e. t
29、he universal rules) or be part of the periphery.Core rules are considered to be unmarked and therefore easily acquired.Periphery roles are considered to be and therefore different to learn. 25. Krashens Monitor ModelKrashen s monitor model mainly consists of the following five hypothses:(1) Acquisit
30、ion-Learning Hypothesis:there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis:SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting).Impl
31、ications:Errors are developme ntal and are a n atural byproduct of lear ningtolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis cIt laims a move along the developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input.We acquire , only when we understand the struct
32、ure that is“a littlebeyond” where we are nowComprehensible input is defined as L2 input justbeyond theLearner s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntacticcomplexity.If a learner s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1.In put which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2
33、/3/4 )will not be useful for acquisition.(4) The affective filter hypothesisSLA is affected by factors likeMotivation , Self-confidence, Anxietyand so on.Learners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they
34、are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.(5) Monitor hypothesisBoth language learners and native speakers typically try to correct any errors in what they have just said. This is referred to as monitoring.Krashen use
35、s the term Monitoring (with a big M) to refer to the way the learner used learnt knowledge to improve utterances produced by means of acquired knowledge.26. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similaritiesand differences between the target language and any other la
36、nguage that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.27. LAD (language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they lea
37、rn.28. critical age period hypothesisIt claims that there a period when language acquisition can take place naturally and effortlessly, but after a certain age the brain is no longer able to process language input in this. Researchers differ over when the critical period comes to an end.29. field in
38、dependent vs. field independentLearners are different in the ways of receiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling information.Field dependents operate holistically (i.e. they see the field as a whole),Whereas field independents operate analytically (i.e. they see the field in terms of its c
39、omponent parts). 30. input vs. intakeInput refers to the language learners are exposed to.It serves as the data which learners must use to determine the rules of the target language.However, not all available input is processed by the learner, eitherbecause some of it is not understood or because so
40、me of it is not attended to.That part of input that is processed, assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system is referred to as intake. 31.attitudes vs. aptitude vs. intelligenceAttitudes refer to the learner s beliefs about factors such as thetarget language culture, their own culture, their
41、teacher and the learning tasks they are given.Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a second language.Intelligence refers to the general ability to master academic skills.32. competence vs. performanceWhen learners acquire a L2, they internalize rules which are then orga
42、nized into a system. This constitutes their competence.The actual use of this system to comprehend and produce utterances is referred to as performance.33. OvergeneralizationIt refers to the extension of some general rule to items not covered by this rule in the target language.34. foreigner talk vs
43、. teacher talkWhen native speakers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. Theseadjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.When teachers address learners, they makeadjustments in both language form and language function to f
44、acilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.35. formulaic speech vs. patternsFormulaic speech consists of expressions which are learned as unanalysable wholes and employed in particular occasions.Patterns are one type of formulaic speech. They are unanalysable units
45、which have one or more open slots, e.g.Can I have a 。36. interferenceAccording to the behaviorist learning theory, old habits get in theway of learning new habits. Thus in SLA, the patterns of the learnersmother tongue get in the way of learning the patterns of the L2. This is referred to as interfe
46、rence.37. order/sequence/route of developmentOrder of development refers to the order in which specific grammatical features are acquired in SLA. These vary according to such factors as the learner s L1 background and other factors.Sequence of development refers to the overall profile of development
47、 of SLA which is held to be universal and thus, not subject to variation as a result of L1 background and other factors.Route of development refers to those transitional states the learners have to go through in the process of SLA. It is intended to be neutral regarding whether it is universal or su
48、bject to variation.38. Universal HypothesisThe universal hypothesis statesthat language acquisition is governed by the wayin which natural languages are organized.That is, certain universal linguistic properties influence the order in which the rules of a specific language are acquired.According to the universal hypothesis, it is linguistic rather than general cognitive factors that determine a